The players

Traffic-quality company that scores every traffic source with the TQI Score; publisher of The Arbitrage Desk.

ClearTrust's click-fraud and invalid-click protection for advertisers who pay per click.

ClearTrust's ad-quality and malvertising protection for publishers.

Research firm whose 2023 report exposed where Google's search partner ads were really appearing.

Go-to-market security company; owns the click-fraud tool ClickCease and sells traffic vetting to feed platforms.

Ad verification company; one of the vendors Google lets advertisers use to pre-screen search partner sites.

Bot-detection company, formerly White Ops, known for exposing large ad-fraud botnets.

Ad verification company taken private by Novacap in December 2025; also a Google search-partner pre-screen vendor.

UK click-fraud prevention company, formerly PPC Protect, covering paid search and paid social.

Click-fraud and invalid-traffic prevention for advertisers, owned by ASX-listed Adveritas.